Comment fonctionne la France

Pourquoi le croire ?

Des chiffres d’une vue et d’une année du diagramme, avec leurs sources et leur calcul, chacun sous sa propre ancre. Retour à la page Est-ce efficace ?.

Impact, fuites, permanence

Allègements généraux de cotisations

  • Antoine Bozio et al. (2022)Évaluation d'impact de la bascule du Crédit d'impôt pour la compétitivité et l'emploi (CICE) en allègement de cotisations employeurImpact: neutre. « aucun effet n'est détecté sur les variables d'emploi, ni de valeur ajoutée, de chiffre d'affaires ou d'investissements, pour les années 2019 et 2020 »
  • Antoine Bozio and Étienne Wasmer (2024)Les politiques d'exonérations de cotisations sociales : une inflexion nécessaire (rapport final)Impact: positif. « La politique de réduction des cotisations employeur sur les bas salaires a eu un impact significatif sur l'emploi lors de sa mise en place dans les années 1990. »
  • Bruno Crépon and Rozenn Desplatz (2001)Une nouvelle évaluation des effets des allègements de charges sociales sur les bas salairesImpact: positif. « 460 000 emplois auraient été ainsi créés ou sauvegardés dans l'économie, entre 1994 et 1997 »
  • Francis Kramarz and Thomas Philippon (2001)The impact of differential payroll tax subsidies on minimum wage employmentImpact: mitigé. « Tax subsidies have a small and insignificant impact on entry. »
  • Mathieu Bunel and Yannick L'Horty (2012)The Effects of Reduced Social Security Contributions on Employment: an Evaluation of the 2003 French ReformImpact: mitigé. « Ultimately, the Fillon reform has had no clear effect on aggregate employment »
  • Sophie Cottet (2020)Payroll Tax Reductions for Minimum Wage Workers: Relative Labor Cost or Cash Windfall Effects?Impact: positif. « the number of minimum-wage jobs increases »Fuites: fuite constatée. « and thus benefit ex ante from a cash windfall »
  • Yannick L'Horty et al. (2019)Baisses de charges : stop ou encore ?Impact: mitigé. « ont peu d'effets positifs sur les exportations »
  • Thomas Breda et al. (2024)Equilibrium effects of payroll tax reductions and optimal policy designImpact: positif. « leads to an overall improvement in economic efficiency by increasing employment »Fuites: fuite constatée. « with minor negative congestion spillovers »
  • Julien Albertini et al. (2025)Payroll Tax Reductions on Low Wages and Minimum Wage in FranceImpact: positif. « reducing payroll tax cuts for low wages would result in declines in both employment and fiscal surplus »
  • Pierre Cahuc et al. (2019)The Effectiveness of Hiring CreditsImpact: positif. « the program has had a strong and rapid impact on employment »
  • Romain Aeberhardt and David Sraer (2009)Allègements de cotisations patronales et dynamique salarialeImpact: neutre. « low-wage growth for the categories covered by our study did not lose momentum after the introduction of contribution relief »
  • Richard Duhautois and Fabrice Gilles (2013)Payroll tax reductions and job flows in FranceImpact: neutre. « our estimates show that PTR let job flows unchanged »
  • Bruno Crépon et al. (2004)RTT, productivité et emploi : nouvelles estimations sur données d'entreprisesImpact: positif. « employment in these firms is found to have risen 9.9% compared with the firms that remained on a 39-hour week »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Autres exonérations ciblées

  • Simon Quantin et al. (2021)Évaluation du dispositif Jeune entreprise innovante (JEI). Un exemple d'application du modèle d'analyse de sensibilité de RosenbaumImpact: positif. « un effet du recours au dispositif JEI sur l'emploi salarié total et dédié à la R&D »Fuites: aucune fuite constatée. « qui ne s'accompagne pas d'un effet sur la rémunération versée aux salariés »
  • Vincent Dortet-Bernadet and Michaël Sicsic (2017)L'effet des aides à la R&D sur l'emploi : une évaluation pour les petites entreprises en FranceImpact: positif. « l'effet du soutien public sur l'emploi consacré aux activités de R&D est positif et croissant entre 2004 et 2010 »Permanence: durable. « positif et croissant entre 2004 et 2010 »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Exonérations outre-mer (LODEOM)

Impact, fuites, permanence

Crédit d'impôt en faveur de la recherche

  • Antoine Bozio et al. (2019)Évaluation d'impact de la réforme 2008 du crédit impôt rechercheImpact: positif. « nous obtenons des effets positifs de la réforme sur les dépenses de R&D de l'ordre de 15 % à 18 % »
  • Vincent Dortet-Bernadet and Michaël Sicsic (2017)L'effet des aides à la R&D sur l'emploi : une évaluation pour les petites entreprises en France / The effect of R&D subsidies and tax incentives on employment: an evaluation for small firms in FranceImpact: positif. « Public R&D support raised R&D employment in small firms »Fuites: fuite constatée. « s'accompagne d'un effet d'aubaine significatif : selon nos estimations, seulement entre 18 et 34 % du supplément d'aides obtenu par les entreprises entre 2008 et 2010 aurait servi à financer de nouveaux emplois hautement qualifiés »
  • Marianna Marino et al. (2016)Additionality or crowding-out? An overall evaluation of public R&D subsidy on private R&D expenditureImpact: neutre. « We find evidence of either no additionality or substitution effects between public and private R&D expenditure. »Fuites: fuite constatée. « Crowding-out effects appear to be more pronounced for medium-high levels of public subsidies, and generally under the R&D tax credit regime. »
  • Emmanuel Duguet (2012)The effect of the incremental R&D tax credit on the private funding of R&D: an econometric evaluation on French firm level dataImpact: positif. « the tax credit adds to the private funding of R&D »Fuites: aucune fuite constatée. « 1 Euro of tax credit would give slightly more than one Euro of total R&D »
  • Benoît Mulkay and Jacques Mairesse (2013)The R&D tax credit in France: assessment and ex ante evaluation of the 2008 reformImpact: positif. « obtaining a preferred estimate of -0.4 for the long run elasticity of the user cost of R&D capital »Fuites: fuite constatée. « the implicit long run budget multiplier would be about 0.7 »
  • Laurent Bach et al. (2021)Les impacts du crédit impôt recherche sur la performance économique des entreprises (IPP report); Évaluation du crédit d'impôt recherche, Avis de la CNEPI 2021Impact: mitigé. « l'étude n'identifie pas d'effet positif significatif des créances du CIR dont elles ont bénéficié en matière de R & D, d'innovation et d'investissement »
  • Antoine Bozio et al. (2015)Impact of Research Tax Credit on R&D and Innovation: Evidence from the 2008 French ReformImpact: positif. « a positive effect of the 2008 reform on R&D at both the intensive margin and extensive margin »
  • This site: Research tax credit (CIR)Research tax credit (CIR)Impact: neutre. « France's business R&D was 2.6% above its synthetic counterpart in 2008-2012, where one euro of R&D per euro of credit would give 12.2%; ranked among the donor countries, neither zero nor one euro per euro can be rejected (one-for-one p = 15%, the smallest possible being 8%). Researchers per thousand in employment were 9.4% above the synthetic in 2008-2012, ranked first of 10 units (p = 0.10, the smallest possible). »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Crédit d'impôt au titre de l'emploi d'un salarié à domicile

  • Claire Marbot and Delphine Roy (2011)Services à domicile : quel effet des incitations fiscales ?Impact: positif. « La mise en place de la réduction d'impôt aurait suscité la création de 12 000 à 43 000 emplois en équivalent temps plein »
  • Claire Marbot and Delphine Roy (2011)Services à domicile : quel effet des incitations fiscales ? (2007 conversion into a tax credit)Impact: positif. « la mesure aurait suscité la création de 4 000 à 14 000 emplois »
  • Claire Marbot (2011)Une évaluation de la réduction d'impôt pour l'emploi de salariés à domicile / An Evaluation of the French Tax Reduction for In-Home ServicesImpact: positif. « la mise en place de la réduction d'impôt a eu un effet significativement positif, de l'ordre de 1,3 à 4,9 points de pourcentage »
  • Clément Carbonnier (2009)Réduction et crédit d'impôt pour l'emploi d'un salarié à domicile, conséquences incitatives et redistributivesImpact: positif. « La réaction de la demande est bien significative, mais de faible ampleur. »
  • Anne Flipo et al. (2007)Is the household demand for in-home services sensitive to tax reductions? The French caseImpact: positif. « A ten per cent increase in the tax reduction would increase from 45.9 to 50.8 per cent the proportion of households benefiting from the tax reduction »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Exonération partielle, sous certaines conditions, de droits de mutation à titre gratuit lors de la transmission d'entreprises exploitées sous la forme individuelle ou détenues sous forme sociale

  • Laurent Bach et al. (2025)L'impact économique des transmissions d'entreprises réalisées avec un pacte Dutreil (IPP); results reported in Cour des comptes, Le Pacte Dutreil : un dispositif fiscal en forte croissance à mieux ciblerImpact: mitigé. « L'effet légèrement positif du pacte Dutreil sur la pérennité des entreprises ne se traduit donc pas par une hausse de l'investissement et de l'emploi. »
  • Cour des comptes (with IPP) (2025)Le Pacte Dutreil : un dispositif fiscal en forte croissance à mieux ciblerImpact: positif. « Le pacte Dutreil est donc, comme il est attendu, favorable à la pérennité du contrôle familial et à la stabilité de l'actionnariat. »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Exonération des sommes versées au titre de la participation, de l'intéressement, de l'abondement, d'un partage de plus-value, des primes de partage de la valeur, d’un plan de partage de la valorisation de l’entreprise, aux plans d'épargne salariale et aux plans d'épargne retraite d'entreprise collectifs ou obligatoires

  • Noélie Delahaie and Richard Duhautois (2019)Profit-Sharing and Wages: An Empirical Analysis Using French Data between 2000 and 2007Fuites: fuite constatée. « changes in the base wage over this period are lower among firms that have had profit‐sharing for a number of years »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Taux de 10 % pour les travaux d’amélioration, de transformation, d’aménagement et d’entretien, autres que les travaux de rénovation énergétiques soumis au taux de 5,5 % en application de l’article 278-0 bis A, portant sur les logements achevés depuis plus de deux ans

  • Clément Carbonnier (2007)Who pays sales taxes? Evidence from French VAT reforms, 1987-1999Impact: positif. « The consumer share of the sales tax burden is 57% in the new car sales market and 77% in the housing repair services market. »Fuites: fuite constatée. « 77% in the housing repair services market »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Exonération de l’impôt sur le revenu, sous certaines conditions et limites, des rémunérations versées à raison des heures supplémentaires et complémentaires réalisées à compter du 1er janvier 2019

  • Pierre Cahuc and Stéphane Carcillo (2014)The Detaxation of Overtime Hours: Lessons from the French ExperimentImpact: neutre. « this reform has had no significant impact on hours worked »Fuites: fuite constatée. « it has had a positive impact on the overtime hours declared by highly qualified wage earners, who have opportunities to manipulate the overtime hours they declare »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Taux de 10% pour la restauration commerciale (consommation sur place et vente à emporter en vue d'une consommation immédiate)

  • Youssef Benzarti and Dorian Carloni (2019)Who Really Benefits from Consumption Tax Cuts? Evidence from a Large VAT Reform in FranceImpact: neutre. « the effect on consumers was limited »Fuites: fuite constatée. « the reform mostly benefited owners of sit-down restaurants, who pocketed 41 percent of the tax cut »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Réduction d'impôt au titre des dons

  • Gabrielle Fack and Camille Landais (2010)Are Tax Incentives for Charitable Giving Efficient? Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « the price elasticity of contributions is relatively small, but tends to increase with the level of gifts »
  • Gabrielle Fack and Camille Landais (2016)The effect of tax enforcement on tax elasticities: Evidence from charitable contributions in FranceImpact: positif. « the reform was also associated with a substantial decline in the absolute value of the elasticity of reported contributions »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Réductions d'impôt sur le revenu en faveur de l'investissement locatif intermédiaire (dispositifs Duflot et Pinel)

  • Guillaume Chapelle et al. (2018)Impact of a Housing Tax Credit on Local Housing Markets: Evidence from FranceImpact: neutre. « without reducing the production of new housing units »Fuites: fuite constatée. « the removal of these tax credits decelerated house prices »
  • Pierre-Henri Bono and Alain Trannoy (2019)The Impact of the 'Scellier' Income Tax Relief on Building Land Prices in FranceFuites: fuite constatée. « point to land price capitalisation »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Crédits d'impôt "Prêt à taux zéro" et "Prêt à taux zéro renforcé PTZ+"

  • Laurent Gobillon and David le Blanc (2008)Economic effects of upfront subsidies to ownership: The case of the Prêt à Taux Zéro in FranceImpact: positif. « the PTZ significantly increases access to ownership by allowing some households to leave the rental sector sooner »Fuites: fuite constatée. « 85% of the beneficiaries in a 4-year period would still have moved to own in the absence of the subsidy »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Exonération d’impôt sur les bénéfices pour les entreprises créées ou reprises dans les ZRR

  • Luc Behaghel et al. (2015)Replacing churches and mason lodges? Tax exemptions and rural developmentImpact: neutre. « We find no impact of the program on employment and wages »
  • This site: ZRR rural tax zoneZRR rural tax zoneImpact: mitigé. « Entrants' private jobs moved by -7.4% against matched communes by 2025 (95% confidence interval -14.5% to -0.4%), employers by -3.9%: no gain, and falls at the edge of significance, of the order of the drift between the pairs before 2016. On the aims its classification names: population moved by -1.4% between the 2015 and 2021 censuses (95% interval -2.3% to -0.5%), the labour force by -1.9% (-3.2% to -0.7%) and net migration by -11.1 per 1,000 inhabitants (-20.6 to -1.6), but unclassified neighbours moved alike, which points to the area rather than the zone. »Fuites: aucune fuite constatée. « Unclassified neighbours within 10 km moved by +2.2% in jobs against far communes (95% confidence interval -3.1% to +7.5%): no displacement can be distinguished from zero. »Permanence: aucune perte à la suppression. « Communes that left the zone in 2017 moved by +2.8% in jobs against those that stayed (95% confidence interval -2.0% to +7.7%): a loss of more than 2% is excluded. »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Crédit d'impôt en faveur de l'innovation

  • Simon Bunel and Benjamin Hadjibeyli (2021)Évaluation du crédit d'impôt innovation / An Evaluation of the Innovation Tax CreditImpact: positif. « il est mis en évidence une hausse de l'emploi plus importante à court terme chez les entreprises bénéficiaires du dispositif »Fuites: fuite constatée. « l'introduction du CII s'est accompagnée d'une baisse des dépenses de recherche déclarées dans le cadre du CIR »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Vieillesse

  • Montserrat Botey (2026)Pension Reform and Indebtedness in Retirement: Consumption Smoothing or Credit Expansion? Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « ces deux réformes ont accru la probabilité de détenir une dette par rapport aux cohortes non affectées »
  • Antoine Bozio et al. (2021)Impact of later retirement on mortality: Evidence from FranceImpact: neutre. « has no significant impact on the probability to die »
  • Hélène Blake and Clémentine Garrouste (2019)Collateral Effects of a Pension Reform in FranceImpact: négatif. « a negative effect of the 1993 reform on perceived and physical health »
  • Elsa Perdrix (2022)Does later retirement change your healthcare consumption? Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « decreases significantly the probability to have at least one doctor visit per year by 0.815 percentage point »
  • Christophe Daniel et al. (2018)Durée d'assurance et équivalent patrimonial des droits à retraite : l'impact de la réforme de 1993Impact: positif. « reporter son départ en retraite réduit l'EPDR moyen d'environ 20% »
  • Antoine Bozio (2006)Réformes des retraites : estimations sur données françaisesImpact: mitigé. « a one-quarter increase in the contribution period led to an average increase of one and a half months in the length of careers »
  • Antoine Bozio (2011)La réforme des retraites de 1993 : l'impact de l'augmentation de la durée d'assuranceImpact: positif. « un report de neuf mois pour toute année supplémentaire d'assurance requise »
  • Julie Tréguier (2021)Départ à la retraite : femmes et hommes prennent-ils les mêmes décisions ?Impact: positif. « Les hommes sont plus sensibles aux incitations financières et décalent davantage leur âge de départ »
  • Denis Fougère and Pierre Gouëdard (2021)The effects of financial incentives and disincentives on teachers' retirement decisions: Evidence from the 2003 French pension reformImpact: positif. « the reform has progressively increased the average retirement age up to 61 »
  • Manuella Baraton et al. (2011)Une évaluation de l'effet de la réforme de 2003 sur les départs en retraite. Le cas des enseignants du second degré publicImpact: positif. « la réforme a bien eu un impact sur la probabilité de partir après 60 ans »
  • Sarah Le Duigou et al. (2020)Financial incentives to postpone retirement: Estimating the impacts of the 2003 French pension reform on the employment and wages of older workers by using a lifetime job search modelImpact: mitigé. « attenuate the impacts of financial incentives that cause wage increases and few new jobs »
  • Samia Benallah (2011)Comportements de départ en retraite et réforme de 2003 : les effets de la surcoteImpact: positif. « un report de deux mois de l'âge de liquidation des droits à la retraite »
  • Kadija Charni (2019)Do the French pension reforms increase re-employment of older unemployed workers?Impact: mitigé. « the 2003 pension reform reduces significantly the exit to employment »
  • Patrick Aubert et al. (2025)Impact de la réforme des retraites de 2010 sur l'équilibre financier de l'assurance chômageImpact: positif. « la réforme a accru l'emploi entre 60 et 62 ans »Fuites: fuite constatée. « une hausse du chômage indemnisé entre 60 et 62 ans »
  • Denis Fougère et al. (2021)Slow Down Before You Stop: The Effect of the 2010 French Pension Reform on Older Teachers' Sick LeavesImpact: négatif. « teachers affected by the reform have an increased probability to take short sick leaves before retirement »Fuites: fuite constatée. « teachers affected by the reform have an increased probability to take short sick leaves before retirement »
  • Eve Caroli et al. (2023)The Health-Consumption Effects of Increasing Retirement Age Late in the GameImpact: négatif. « the probability of having at least one sickness absence increases for all treated groups »Fuites: fuite constatée. « it increases health expenditures »
  • Yves Dubois and Malik Koubi (2017)La réforme des retraites de 2010 : quel impact sur l'activité des seniors ?Impact: positif. « serait entre 19 et 22 points plus élevé que celui des salariés non impactés »Fuites: fuite constatée. « mais également par un accroissement du chômage »
  • Mohamed Ali Ben Halima et al. (2022)L'effet de la réforme des retraites de 2010 sur l'absence maladieImpact: négatif. « une augmentation de la probabilité d'avoir au moins un arrêt maladie (+1,7 point de pourcentage) »Fuites: fuite constatée. « une augmentation de la probabilité d'avoir au moins un arrêt maladie (+1,7 point de pourcentage) »
  • Simon Rabaté and Julie Rochut (2019)Employment and substitution effects of raising the statutory retirement age in FranceImpact: positif. « despite a sizable effect on the employment rate »Fuites: fuite constatée. « around one fifth in the decrease in public spending is offset by increasing expenses in other public insurance schemes »
  • Jean-Olivier Hairault et al. (2010)Distance to Retirement and The Job Search of Older Workers: The Case For Delaying Retirement AgeImpact: positif. « the likelihood of employment is significantly affected by the distance from retirement »
  • Jean-Olivier Hairault et al. (2009)Le faible taux d'emploi des seniors : distance à l'entrée dans la vie active ou distance à la retraite ?Impact: positif. « the negative effect of proximity to retirement on older workers' employment is confirmed »
  • Elena Stancanelli and Arthur van Soest (2012)Retirement and Home Production: A Regression Discontinuity ApproachImpact: positif. « own retirement significantly increases own hours of home production »
  • Nicolas Moreau and Elena Stancanelli (2015)Household Consumption at Retirement: A Regression Discontinuity Study on French DataImpact: mitigé. « We find a significant and sizable drop in food and clothes expenditure upon retirement of the male partner. However, the drop in food expenditure is not robust »
  • Elena Stancanelli (2012)Spouses' Retirement and Hours of Work Outcomes: Evidence from Twofold Regression DiscontinuityImpact: positif. « hours of work fall significantly upon own and partner's retirement »
  • Elena Stancanelli and Arthur van Soest (2012)Joint Leisure Before and After Retirement: a double Regression Discontinuity ApproachImpact: positif. « hours of leisure spent together by the couple increase on average by about an hour and a half per day »
  • Elena Stancanelli (2017)Couples' Retirement under Individual Pension Design: a Regression Discontinuity Study for FranceImpact: positif. « We find a significant drop in each spouse's probability of retirement. »
  • Nicolas Moreau and Elena Stancanelli (2022)L'effet du passage à la retraite sur l'emploi du temps des retraitésImpact: positif. « La retraite se traduit par plus de temps consacré aux tâches ménagères, au sommeil, aux loisirs et aux repas »
  • Luc Behaghel et al. (2014)Retirement, Early Retirement and Disability: Explaining Labor Force Participation after 55 in FranceImpact: positif. « a decrease in the generosity of the pension and DI schemes induces people to stay longer in the labor market »
  • Simon Rabaté (2019)Can I stay or should I go? Mandatory retirement and the labor-force participation of older workersImpact: positif. « exit rates from employment are estimated to be 6% higher when mandatory retirement is possible »
  • Sarah Le Duigou and Pierre-Jean Messe (2024)The influence of unemployment insurance rules on employment effects of pension reformsImpact: positif. « combining an increase in the retirement age with a reduction in the generosity of the unemployment insurance scheme is an efficient policy for raising older workers' employment rates »
  • Pierre-Jean Messe and François-Charles Wolff (2019)Healthier when retiring earlier? Evidence from FranceImpact: neutre. « we fail to find any significant causal effect of early retirement on poor health »
  • Pierre-Jean Messe and François-Charles Wolff (2019)The short-term effects of retirement on health within couples: Evidence from FranceImpact: mitigé. « transition into retirement has a short-term beneficial effect on respondents' self-assessed health. Conversely, we fail to find any significant effect of respondents' retirement on their spouses' health »
  • This site: Retirement age (2023 reform)Retirement age (2023 reform)Impact: non renseigné. « Descriptive: the employment gap between 60-64 and 55-59 grew by 4.5 points in 2024 and 5.5 points in 2025 against 2019-2022; no counterfactual design separates the reform from other trends. »
  • This site: Retirement age (2010 reform)Retirement age (2010 reform)Impact: neutre. « France's employment rate at 60-64 was 1.3 points above a synthetic France of European countries that were also raising pension ages, in 2011-2019; a fake start in 2005 finds -1.3. »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Services hospitaliers

  • Philippe Choné et al. (2013)Introducing Activity-Based Payment in the Hospital Industry: Evidence from French DataImpact: positif. « we find empirical evidence supporting these predictions »
  • Laurent Gobillon and Carine Milcent (2017)Competition and Hospital Quality: Evidence from a French Natural ExperimentImpact: positif. « enjoyed larger declines in mortality in places where there is greater competition »
  • Benoît Lalloué et al. (2017)Evaluation of the effects of the French pay-for-performance program-IFAQ pilot studyImpact: neutre. « the difference-in-differences effect was positive but not significant »
  • Carine Milcent (2021)From downcoding to upcoding: DRG based payment in hospitalsImpact: négatif. « The implementation of a finer classification led to an upcoding-learning effect. »Fuites: fuite constatée. « The end result has been a budget transfer from public non-research hospitals to for-profit hospitals. »
  • Jan Chrusciel et al. (2023)Effect of the Implementation of the French Hospital Regionalization Policy on Patient MobilityImpact: neutre. « the policy did not achieve major changes in patterns of mobility between hospitals »
  • Anne Penneau (2023)Do mobile hospital teams in residential aged care facilities increase health care efficiency: an evaluation of French residential care policyImpact: positif. « The MHT had a significant impact on health care quality in treated RACFs »
  • Payen A and et al. (2023)The impact of including a medication review in an integrated care pathway: A pilot studyImpact: mitigé. « The pathway did not change potentially inappropriate medications; the same abstract reports fewer 30-day readmissions. »
  • Brigitte Dormont and Alexis Dottin (2024)Does the opening of an emergency department influence hospital admissions? Evidence from French private hospitalsImpact: positif. « resulting in admissions of inpatients with health problems that are more severe »
  • Roubille F and et al. (PRADOC investigators) (2024)PRADOC: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial to Assess the Efficiency of PRADO-IC, a Nationwide Pragmatic Transition Care Management Plan for Hospitalized Patients With Heart Failure in FranceImpact: neutre. « The PRADO-IC has not significantly improved clinical outcomes »
  • Carine Milcent (2025)Competition in French hospital: Does it impact the patient management in healthcare?Impact: mitigé. « with a positive effect on high-technical procedures in the private sector and a negative effect on length of stay in public hospitals »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Soins ambulatoires

  • Michel Grignon et al. (2008)Does free complementary health insurance help the poor to access health care? Evidence from FranceImpact: mitigé. « CMU-C had no overall effect on utilisation, with effects concentrated among enrollees previously without complementary cover »
  • Julien Mousquès et al. (2010)Effect of a French experiment of team work between general practitioners and nurses on efficacy and cost of type 2 diabetes patients careImpact: positif. « Asalée patients were more often correctly followed up and under glycaemic control than controls at no extra cost »
  • Sophie Guthmuller et al. (2014)Improving Takeup of Health Insurance Program: A Social Experiment in FranceImpact: mitigé. « a voucher increase has a small but significant effect on takeup and the invitation to an information meeting discourages it »
  • Olivier Saint-Lary and Jonathan Sicsic (2015)Impact of a pay for performance programme on French GPs' consultation lengthImpact: neutre. « the CAPI was no longer a significant predictor of the consultation length »
  • Panayotis Constantinou et al. (2016)Effect of pay-for-performance on cervical cancer screening participation in FranceImpact: positif. « P4P had a modest positive effect on recommended screening participation. »Permanence: s’estompe. « apparently transiently »
  • Audrey Michel-Lepage and Bruno Ventelou (2016)The true impact of the French pay-for-performance program on physicians' benzodiazepines prescription behaviorImpact: positif. « The P4P contract has a positive but modest impact on the achievement of GPs regarding benzodiazepines indicator. »
  • Jonathan Sicsic and Carine Franc (2017)Impact assessment of a pay-for-performance program on breast cancer screening in France using micro dataImpact: neutre. « The French P4P program had a nonsignificant impact on breast cancer screening uptake. »
  • Sophie Guthmuller and Jérôme Wittwer (2017)The Impact of the Eligibility Threshold of a French Means-Tested Health Insurance Programme on Doctor Visits: A Regression Discontinuity AnalysisImpact: mitigé. « with more specialist visits among adults under 30 »
  • Magali Dumontet et al. (2017)Gatekeeping and the utilization of physician services in France: Evidence on the Médecin traitant reformImpact: positif. « fell after the policy was in place »
  • L. Arnaud Lafargue (2017)Intérêt au déploiement du PAERPA dans l'Oise ? Comparaison des pratiques des médecins généralistes avec un territoire piloteImpact: positif. « les pratiques des médecins PAERPA étaient significativement meilleures sur la prévention des chutes »
  • B. Carré et al. (2019)Does the take up of public insurance programs improves health care consumption of poor individuals?Impact: positif. « may play an important role in access to care for the poor population »
  • Guillaume Chevillard et al. (2019)Has the diffusion of primary care teams in France improved attraction and retention of general practitioners in rural areas?Impact: positif. « suggest that they could attract and retain GPs there »
  • Matthieu Cassou et al. (2020)General practitioners' income and activity: the impact of multi-professional group practice in FranceImpact: positif. « an increase in income 2.5% higher than that of other GPs »
  • Fanny Duchaine et al. (2020)L'impact des zonages déficitaires sur l'évolution des disparités territoriales d'infirmiers libéraux en France entre 2006 et 2016Impact: positif. « un effet positif, bien qu'à nuancer »
  • Guillaume Chevillard and Julien Mousquès (2021)Medically underserved areas: are primary care teams efficient at attracting and retaining general practitioners?Impact: positif. « PCT settlements are efficient to attract young GPs »
  • Christophe Loussouarn et al. (2021)Can General Practitioners Be More Productive? The Impact of Teamwork and Cooperation with Nurses on GP ActivitiesImpact: positif. « un effet positif du dispositif mais relativement modeste sur le nombre de jours travaillés par les médecins (+1,2 %) »
  • Matthieu Cassou et al. (2023)General Practitioners activity patterns: the medium-term impacts of Primary Care Teams in FranceImpact: positif. « GPs in MPCGs increased their patient list more rapidly than control GPs »
  • Julie Gilles de la Londe et al. (2023)How does the quality of care for type 2 diabetic patients benefit from GPs-nurses' teamwork? A staggered difference-in-differences design based on a French pilot programImpact: positif. « a positive and significant positive impact »
  • Aimée Kingsada (2024)Can financial incentives improve access to care? Evidence from a French experiment on specialist physiciansImpact: positif. « Both the CAS and OPTAM successfully enhance access to care. »
  • Quitterie Roquebert et al. (2025)Strengthening primary health care: The new contribution of midwives to gynecological care in FranceImpact: positif. « Our results show an increase in midwives' use following the reform »
  • Estelle Augé and Nicolas Sirven (2026)Improving Healthcare Utilization in Retired Self-Employed Workers: Evidence From an Experiment in FranceImpact: positif. « Proactive information outreach alone increased healthcare utilization by 0.6% »
  • S. Tubert-Jeannin et al. (2026)The French 100% Santé Reform: Impacts on Dental Care UtilizationImpact: positif. « Full denture utilization was 58.85% higher »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Maladie et invalidité

  • Mohamed Ali Ben Halima and Malik Koubi (2022)The effects of expanding the generosity of statutory sick leave insurance: The case of a French reformImpact: positif. « the number of sick days' increases significantly (+ 0.5 days) »
  • Mohamed Ali Ben Halima et al. (2015)Quel est l'impact du système d'indemnisation maladie sur la durée des arrêts de travail pour maladie ?Impact: positif. « La simple présence d'une convention collective a un effet positif sur la probabilité d'avoir un arrêt maladie dans l'année »
  • Catherine Pollak (2017)The impact of a sick pay waiting period on sick leave patternsImpact: mitigé. « employees who are compensated during the 3-day waiting period are not more likely to have an absence. On the contrary, their sickness leaves are significantly shorter by 3 days on average »
  • Mélina Hillion and Édouard Maugendre (2024)L'effet du « jour de carence » sur les absences pour maladie des personnels du secteur public de l'éducation nationaleImpact: positif. « le jour de carence s'accompagne en moyenne d'une baisse de 23 % du nombre d'épisodes de CMO »
  • Mélina Hillion and Édouard Maugendre (2023)L'effet du « jour de carence » sur les absences pour maladie ordinaire, la santé perçue et le recours aux soins à court-termeImpact: neutre. « le jour de carence n'a pas eu d'effet notable sur la perception de l'état de santé général »Fuites: aucune fuite constatée. « les visites médicales (généralistes et spécialistes), les délivrances de médicaments et les hospitalisations »
  • Mohamed Ali Ben Halima et al. (2026)Quels effets du jour de carence sur les absences maladie des agents publics territoriaux en 2018-2019 ?Impact: positif. « une baisse significative des congés pour maladie ordinaire dans la fonction publique territoriale suite à la mesure »
  • Alexandre Cazenave-Lacroutz and Alexandre Godzinski (2017)Effects of the one-day waiting period for sick leave on health-related absences in the French central civil serviceImpact: mitigé. « the total prevalence of health-related absences is not affected by the policy. However, its duration distribution is. »Fuites: fuite constatée. « The prevalence of short-term absences decreases, while the prevalence of long-term absences increases. »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Famille et enfants

  • Philippe Chone et al. (2004)Offre de travail feminine et garde des jeunes enfantsImpact: positif. « Le temps partiel féminin est fortement sensible aux incitations financières de l'APE »
  • Thomas Piketty (2005)L'impact de l'allocation parentale d'education sur l'activite feminine et la fecondite en France, 1982-2002Impact: positif. « entre 100 000 et 150 000 mères de 2 enfants »Fuites: fuite constatée. « entre 100 000 et 150 000 mères de 2 enfants (sur environ 300 000 allocataires de l'APE de rang 2 au 31 décembre 1997, dont 220 000 à plein taux) »
  • Julie Moschion (2010)Reconciling Work and Family Life: The Effect of the French Paid Parental LeaveImpact: positif. « having more than two children no longer has a negative effect on the participation probability of mothers »
  • Laurent Lequien (2012)The Impact of Parental Leave Duration on Later WagesImpact: positif. « this reform did induce many mothers to withdraw from the labor market in the 3 years following the birth »Permanence: durable. « interruption duration would have a negative causal impact on wages after the return to work »
  • Laudine Carbuccia et al. (2025)A randomised controlled trial on the effect of administrative burden and information costs on social inequalities in early childcare access in FranceImpact: mitigé. « the information-only treatment had minimal impact, while adding personalised support to alleviate administrative burdens significantly bridged the SES and migration gaps in early childcare applications »
  • Nelly Elmallakh (2023)Fertility and Labor Supply Responses to Child Allowances: The Introduction of Means-Tested Benefits in FranceImpact: positif. « restricting family allowance eligibility criteria decreases fertility among the richest households »
  • Guillaume Allegre et al. (2015)Child care and labour market participation in France: do monetary incentives matter?Impact: positif. « We show that monetary incentives do play a role. »
  • Ariane Pailhe et al. (2024)Can Daddies Learn to Care for Babies? The Effect of A Short Paternity Leave on the Division of Childcare and HouseworkImpact: mitigé. « Le fait de prendre un congé de paternité conduit à un partage plus équitable de plusieurs tâches parentales. Il n'a qu'un effet marginal sur le partage des activités ménagères. »
  • Lawrence M. Berger et al. (2021)The Impact of Center-Based Childcare Attendance on Early Child Development: Evidence From the French Elfe CohortImpact: mitigé. « crèche attendance has a positive impact on language skills, no impact on motor skills, and a negative impact on behavior »
  • Pierre Pora (2020)Keep Working and Spend Less? Collective Childcare and Parental Earnings in FranceImpact: neutre. « These plans did not lead to any substantial change in parents' labor outcomes or in paid parental leave take-up. »Fuites: fuite constatée. « these collective childcare expansions crowded out more costly formal childcare solutions »
  • Jerome Poulain et al. (2024)Evaluation de l'impact du dispositif Fais-moi une place sur les trajectoires professionnellesImpact: mitigé. « Aucun effet du programme n'est détecté sur l'accès à la formation »
  • Guy Laroque and Bernard Salanie (2014)Identifying the Response of Fertility to Financial IncentivesImpact: positif. « financial incentives have had a significant effect on fertility decisions in France »
  • Thomas Piketty (1998)L'impact des incitations financieres au travail sur les comportements individuels : une estimation pour le cas francaisImpact: mitigé. « the data used do not enable us to show any significant effect of financial incentives to work on men's transition from non-employment to employment »
  • Pauline Givord and Claire Marbot (2015)Does the cost of child care affect female labor market participation? An evaluation of a French reform of childcare subsidiesImpact: positif. « the new policy results in a significant increase in the use of paid childcare services »
  • Olivier Joseph et al. (2013)The economic impact of taking short parental leave: Evaluation of a French reformImpact: mitigé. « full-time short paid parental leave had almost no effect on labour market participation and wages of first mothers at the global level »Permanence: durable. « The wages remain lower two years after child birth »
  • Zsuzsanna Makay (2023)Paid Parental Leave Reforms and Mothers' Employment in Austria, France and HungaryImpact: mitigé. « We found however, no significant effect of the 1986 reform for third children and the 2004 reform »
  • Helene Perivier and Gregory Verdugo (2023)Where Are the Fathers? Effects of Earmarking Parental Leave for Fathers in FranceImpact: mitigé. « The reform increased mothers' labor earnings, but it had no significant impact on fathers' earnings. »
  • Mathilde Guergoat-Lariviere and Mathieu Narcy (2024)La reforme du conge parental de 2015 : un impact heterogene sur les meres et les peres selon les groupes sociaux et le contexte localImpact: mitigé. « cette réforme n'a pas réellement encouragé les pères à prolonger le congé parental de leur conjointe à temps plein, certains l'ont fait à temps partiel »
  • Mathilde Guergoat-Lariviere et al. (2023)L'impact de la PreParE sur l'activite, les revenus et les modes de gardeImpact: positif. « la réduction d'un an de la durée d'indemnisation du congé parental a augmenté la probabilité des mères d'être en emploi »Fuites: fuite constatée. « a contribué à augmenter le taux de recours à certains modes de garde formels »Permanence: durable. « mais également sur les trois années suivantes (+3,4 pp.) »
  • Mathieu Narcy and Florent Sari (2021)Quel est l'effet d'une reduction de la duree d'indemnisation du conge parental sur l'activite des meres ? Une evaluation de la reforme de 2015Impact: positif. « Cette réforme a eu pour conséquence de réduire la probabilité de recourir au congé parental à temps plein d'environ 10 points de pourcentage »
  • Helene Perivier and Gregory Verdugo (2021)Cinq ans apres la reforme du conge parental (PreParE), les objectifs sont-ils atteints ?Impact: mitigé. « la réforme n'a pas eu d'effet sur la probabilité pour le couple d'avoir un autre enfant ou de se séparer »
  • Luc Behaghel and Maria Florencia Pinto (2024)Extended maternity leave and children's long-term developmentImpact: neutre. « a three‐year paid leave in France had zero average effects on children's long‐term schooling achievement »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Enseignement secondaire

  • Thomas Piketty and Mathieu Valdenaire (2006)L'impact de la taille des classes sur la réussite scolaire dans les écoles, collèges et lycées français - Estimations à partir du panel primaire 1997 et du panel secondaire 1995Impact: positif. « Une réduction d'un élève par classe de la taille de CE1 conduit à une augmentation de 0,7 point du score »
  • Maxime Fajeau et al. (2025)Efficacité économique de la réduction de la taille des classesImpact: positif. « une forte rentabilité de la politique dans l'enseignement primaire »
  • Julien Silhol and Lionel Wilner (2022 (WP); 2026 (journal))Teachers' Desired Mobility to Disadvantaged Schools: Do Financial Incentives Matter?Impact: positif. « most responsive teachers have less experience and work already in those areas »
  • Liliane Bonnal et al. (2002)School-to-work transition: apprenticeship versus vocational school in FranceImpact: positif. « apprentices have a distinct advantage over those who attended vocational school »
  • Élodie Alet and Liliane Bonnal (2011)Vocational schooling and educational success: comparing apprenticeship to full-time vocational high-schoolImpact: mitigé. « is not associated with any significant effect on the probability to drop-out, apprenticeship training leads to a higher probability of success at the exam »
  • Robert J. Gary-Bobo and Mohamed-Badrane Mahjoub (2013)Estimation of Class-Size Effects, Using "Maimonides' Rule" and Other Instruments: the Case of French Junior High SchoolsImpact: mitigé. « These effects vanish in grades 8 and 9. »
  • Julien Grenet (2013)Is Extending Compulsory Schooling Alone Enough to Raise Earnings? Evidence from French and British Compulsory Schooling LawsImpact: neutre. « the impact of the change to French law was close to zero »
  • Dominique Goux et al. (2017)Adjusting Your Dreams? High School Plans and Dropout BehaviourImpact: positif. « the intervention reduces grade repetition and dropout by 25% to 40% »
  • Francesco Avvisati et al. (2014)Getting Parents Involved: A Field Experiment in Deprived SchoolsImpact: mitigé. « However, test scores did not improve under the intervention. »
  • Denis Meuret (1994)L'efficacité de la politique des zones d'éducation prioritaire dans les collègesImpact: négatif. « les élèves progressent en ZEP un peu moins qu'ils ne progresseraient ailleurs »
  • Roland Bénabou et al. (2009)The French zones d'éducation prioritaire: Much ado about nothing?Impact: neutre. « there is no impact on student success of the ZEP program »
  • Laurent Davezies and Manon Garrouste (2020)More Harm than Good? Sorting Effects in a Compensatory Education ProgramImpact: négatif. « the program decreases the individual probability of attending a treated school »Fuites: fuite constatée. « symmetrically increases the probability of attending a private school »
  • Corinne Prost (2013)Teacher Mobility: Can Financial Incentives Help Disadvantaged Schools to Retain Their Teachers?Impact: neutre. « the incentives driven by bonuses are not sufficient to retain teachers in ZEP schools »
  • Luc Behaghel et al. (2017)Ready for Boarding? The Effects of a Boarding School for Disadvantaged StudentsImpact: mitigé. « this effect mostly comes from strong students »
  • This site: Priority education (REP/REP+)Priority education (REP/REP+)Impact: non renseigné. « The placebo fails: entering collèges were already falling behind before 2015, so the entry design cannot measure the label. »Permanence: non renseigné. « Collèges that left priority education in 2015 moved by -1.5 points of brevet pass rate against those that stayed (95% confidence interval -5.5 to +2.6): the data cannot tell a loss from none. The social position index of their pupils moved by +1.4 points (95% interval -1.0 to +3.7). »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Transports

  • Stéphanie Truchet-Aznar et al. (2024)Évaluation de l'impact de la gratuité des transports en commun sur leur fréquentation. Application au cas de Clermont Auvergne MétropoleImpact: positif. « free-fare public transport has led to an increase in weekend ridership of 47 % »
  • Pauline Charnoz et al. (2018)Communication Costs and the Internal Organisation of Multi-Plant Businesses: Evidence From the Impact of the French High-Speed RailImpact: positif. « HSR induced the creation of one production job for the average affiliate in these industries »Fuites: fuite constatée. « the shift of around one managerial job from affiliate to HQ »
  • Gabriel Loumeau and Antonio Russo (2026)Second-hand gentrification: theory and evidence from high-speed rail extensionsImpact: positif. « the HSR connection raised housing prices in Bordeaux and Rennes by 12%, central-neighborhood median income by 2% »Fuites: fuite constatée. « Near Montparnasse, the connecting Paris terminal, prices fell 4% relative to the rest of Paris. »
  • Thierry Mayer and Corentin Trevien (2017)The impact of urban public transportation evidence from the Paris regionImpact: positif. « the RER opening caused a 8.8% rise in employment in the municipalities connected to the network »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Chômage

  • Laura Khoury et al. (2019)Entitled to Leave: the Impact of Unemployment Insurance Eligibility on Employment Duration and Job QualityImpact: négatif. « a large negative impact of UI benefits receipt on employment probability up to 21 months after meeting the eligibility criterion »Permanence: durable. « up to 21 months after meeting the eligibility criterion »
  • Laurent Brembilla et al. (2025)Réforme 2019-2021 : premiers résultats d'évaluation du bonus-malusImpact: positif. « Les premières évaluations tendent néanmoins à montrer que le dispositif a joué un rôle, limité, dans cette baisse »
  • Laurent Brembilla and Marie-Hélène Nguyen (2025)Réforme 2019-2021 : Évaluation de la dégressivité des allocations les plus élevées (Document d'étude)Impact: mitigé. « Nous ne trouvons pas d’effet statistiquement significatif de la dégressivité sur la probabilité de création d’entreprise »
  • Brice Fabre and Justine Obser (2026)Réforme 2019-2021 : Évaluation de la nouvelle condition d'ouverture de droit : quels effets sur la durée des contrats ? (Document d'étude)Impact: mitigé. « L’effet net sur le nombre de jours de contrat prévus dans les embauches en CDD de moins de 7 mois dans les entreprises de plus de 50 salariés est négatif »
  • Maxime Le Bihan and Brice Fabre (2025)Réforme 2019-2021 : Évaluation du nouveau mode de calcul de l'allocation chômage (Document d'étude)Impact: mitigé. « cet effet est porté par une hausse des contrats temporaires de moins de six mois »
  • Florent Fremigacci and Antoine Terracol (2014)L'activité réduite : effet d'enfermement et effet tremplin (Subsidized temporary jobs in France: lock-in and stepping stone effects)Impact: mitigé. « Simulations suggest that the lock-in effect first dominates, but that the overall effect eventually becomes positive. »Permanence: durable. « a significant positive post-treatment impact on the hazard rate to employment »
  • Pierre Granier and Xavier Joutard (1999)L'activité réduite favorise-t-elle la sortie du chômage ?Impact: mitigé. « Although the immediate effect is sometimes negative, working a limited number of hours would appear to make future integration into the labour market less difficult. »Permanence: durable. « Immediate effects combine with the persistent effects of past limited working hours »
  • Maëlle Fontaine and Julie Rochut (2014)L'activité réduite des demandeurs d'emploi. Quel impact sur la qualité du retour à l'emploi ?Impact: mitigé. « Quality of employment, measured by wages and number of hours worked, is not significantly better after reduced activity. »
  • Hélène Benghalem et al. (2023)The Lock-in Effects of Information on Part-Time Unemployment BenefitsImpact: mitigé. « The information provision had a significant positive impact on the propensity to work while on claim, but reduced the unemployment exit rate »Fuites: fuite constatée. « The extension of the duration of compensated unemployment counterbalanced the increase in the number of days worked while on claim »
  • Brigitte Dormont et al. (2001)L'effet de l'allocation unique dégressive sur la reprise d'emploiImpact: négatif. « the type of degression implemented from 1992 to 1996 probably slowed down the return to work »
  • Ioana Marinescu and Daphné Skandalis (2020)Unemployment Insurance and Job Search BehaviorImpact: positif. « search effort (the number of job applications) increases by at least 50% during the year preceding benefits exhaustion »Permanence: durable. « remains high thereafter »
  • Laura Khoury (2021)Choosing Unemployment Benefits: the Role of Adverse Selection and Moral HazardImpact: négatif. « choosing a short schedule with higher average benefits increasesunemployment duration by six months »
  • Luc Behaghel et al. (2008)The perverse effects of partial employment protection reform: The case of French older workersImpact: négatif. « an adverse effect of the tax on the firms' propensity to hire older workers »
  • Béatrice Boutchenik and Raphaël Lardeux (2020)The Take-Up of Unemployment Benefit Extensions (Le recours aux extensions d'indemnisation à l'assurance chômage)Impact: positif. « the letter reduced by 14 points the share of claimants who do not certify their full work history »
  • Laura Khoury (2023)Unemployment Benefits and Redundancies: Incidence and Timing EffectsImpact: positif. « 10% of layoffs in an 4-week window before the threshold are delayed »
  • Olivier Baguelin and Delphine Remillon (2014)Unemployment insurance and management of the older workforce in a dual labor market: Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « the reform increased the mean age at job termination of workers dismissed close to retirement by 4months »Fuites: fuite constatée. « dismissals of insiders close to retirement are often scheduled so that they can receive benefits until retirement »
  • Thomas Le Barbanchon et al. (2019)Unemployment insurance and reservation wages: Evidence from administrative dataImpact: neutre. « We cannot reject that the elasticity of the reservation wage with respect to PBD is zero »
  • Thomas Le Barbanchon (2016)The effect of the potential duration of unemployment benefits on unemployment exits to work and match quality in FranceImpact: négatif. « the rate of return to work decreased by 28 per cent »
  • Pierre Cahuc et al. (2020)Taxation of Temporary Jobs: Good Intentions with Bad Outcomes?Impact: négatif. « the taxation of temporary jobs does not reach its objectives: it reduces the mean duration of jobs and decreases job creation »
  • Johan Hombert et al. (2020)Can Unemployment Insurance Spur Entrepreneurial Activity? Evidence from FranceImpact: mitigé. « because new firms are more productive, the reform has the impact of raising aggregate productivity »Fuites: fuite constatée. « the effect of the reform on employment is largely offset by large crowd-out effects »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Défense militaire

  • Eric Maurin and Theodora Xenogiani (2007)Demand for Education and Labor Market Outcomes: Lessons from the Abolition of Compulsory Conscription in FranceImpact: négatif. « a fall in their educational achievement relative to women »
  • Pierre Granier et al. (2011)Le service militaire et l'insertion professionnelle des jeunes suivant leur niveau d'étude : les leçons de la suspension de la conscription (Revue économique version: Military Service and the Integration of Young Men into the Labor Market Based on their Level of Education)Impact: mitigé. « Les rendements salariaux sont positifs pour les jeunes sortants sans diplôme du système scolaire et ceux de niveau BAC. Ils sont le plus souvent non significatifs pour les autres. »
  • Etienne Fize and Charles Louis-Sidois (2020)Military service and political behavior: Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « les individus ayant fait leur service militaire sont plus enclins à voter »
  • Yajna Govind and Louis Sirugue (2023)To become or not to become French: Conscription, naturalization, and labor market integrationImpact: positif. « the probability of employment for EU males consequently increased by 2 percentage points »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Tutelle de l’économie générale, des échanges et de l’emploi

  • Alexandre Gazaniol and Mathilde Lê (2021)The Impact of Public Loan Guarantees on Banks' Risk Taking and Firms' Growth: Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « les garanties publiques ont un impact positif sur la survie, l'investissement, le chiffre d'affaires et l'emploi des entreprises »
  • Emmanuel Duguet (2012)The effect of the incremental R&D tax credit on the private funding of R&D: an econometric evaluation on French firm level dataImpact: positif. « the tax credit adds to the private funding of R&D »Fuites: aucune fuite constatée. « 1 Euro of tax credit would give slightly more than one Euro of total R&D »
  • Vincent Dortet-Bernadet and Michaël Sicsic (2017)The effect of R&D subsidies and tax incentives on employment: an evaluation for small firms in FranceImpact: positif. « between 18 and 34% of the supplementary aid obtained by businesses between 2008 and 2010 was used to finance new jobs »Fuites: fuite constatée. « only between 18 and 34% of the supplementary aid obtained by businesses between 2008 and 2010 was used to finance new jobs for highly qualified workers »
  • Clément Carbonnier et al. (2018)Évaluation interdisciplinaire des impacts du CICE en matière d'emplois et de salairesImpact: neutre. « les entreprises les plus intensément ciblées par le CICE n'ont pas connu de hausse de l'emploi entre 2013 et 2015 »
  • Rémi Monin and Milena Suarez Castillo (2018)L'effet du CICE sur les prix : une double analyse sur données sectorielles et individuellesImpact: neutre. « cet effet déflationniste ne peut être distingué d'une baisse générale des prix dans ces secteurs »
  • Antoine Bozio et al. (2019)Évaluation d'impact de la réforme 2008 du crédit impôt rechercheImpact: positif. « des effets positifs de la réforme sur les dépenses de R&D de l'ordre de 15 % à 18 % »
  • Clément Carbonnier et al. (2022)Who benefits from tax incentives? The heterogeneous wage incidence of a tax creditFuites: fuite constatée. « Wage gains load on incumbents in high -skill occupations. »
  • Clément Brébion (2019)Vocational training and industrial relations in France and Germany (PhD thesis, chapter 3)Impact: positif. « a limited but significantly negative elasticity of the number of apprentices hired to training costs »Fuites: fuite constatée. « the subsidy fosters turnover strategies »
  • Pierre Cahuc et al. (2014)Do Hiring Credits Work in Recessions?Impact: positif. « the program has had a strong and rapid impact on employment »
  • Pierre Cahuc et al. (2019)The Effectiveness of Hiring CreditsImpact: positif. « had significant positive employment effects »Fuites: aucune fuite constatée. « no effects on wages »
  • Laetitia Challe et al. (2020)Les effets des emplois francs sur les discriminations dans le recrutement : une évaluation par testing répétésImpact: neutre. « n'a pas coïncidé avec un changement des discriminations dans l'accès à l'emploi »
  • Bruno Crépon et al. (2005)Counseling the unemployed: does it lower unemployment duration and recurrence?Impact: positif. « We find significant favorable effects on both outcomes »Permanence: durable. « the program shifts the incidence of recurrence, one year after employment, from 33 to 26% »
  • Denis Fougère et al. (2009)Does the public employment service affect search effort and outcomes?Impact: positif. « the exit rate from unemployment increases with the arrival rate of job contacts obtained by the public employment service »
  • Bruno Crépon et al. (2013)Do Labor Market Policies have Displacement Effects? Evidence from a Clustered Randomized ExperimentImpact: positif. « were significantly more likely to have found a stable job than those who were not »Fuites: fuite constatée. « they appear to have come partly at the expense of eligible workers who did not benefit from the program »Permanence: s’estompe. « But these gains are transitory »
  • Luc Behaghel et al. (2014)Private and public provision of counseling to job seekers: evidence from a large controlled experimentImpact: positif. « an effect per beneficiary that is twice as large under the public as under the private program »
  • Roland Rathelot and Patrick Sillard (2008)Zones Franches Urbaines : quels effets sur l'emploi salarié et les créations d'établissements ?Impact: positif. « L'impact du classement en ZFU sur les créations d'établissement et d'emplois s'avère alors significatif et positif. »Fuites: fuite constatée. « résulte pour les deux tiers d'un déplacement d'activités économiques en provenance de zones non ciblées »
  • Pauline Givord et al. (2012)A Long-Term Evaluation of the First Generation of the French Urban Enterprise ZonesImpact: positif. « a strong positive impact of the Entreprise Zone policy on employment and business location during the first years of the policy »Permanence: s’estompe. « after some years, the early positive results are reduced »
  • Thierry Mayer et al. (2012)Les effets de (re)localisation des Zones FranchesImpact: mitigé. « sans grand impact sur l'emploi des résidents »Fuites: fuite constatée. « cet effet est largement dû à des (re)localisations opportunistes de petites entreprises au sein des villes considérées »
  • Laurent Gobillon et al. (2012)Do unemployed workers benefit from enterprise zones? The French experienceImpact: positif. « It had a small but significant effect on the rate at which unemployed workers find a job »Permanence: s’estompe. « This effect is localized and significant only in the short run »
  • Pauline Givord et al. (2013)Place-based tax exemptions and displacement effects: An evaluation of the Zones Franches Urbaines programImpact: mitigé. « significant effects on business creation and on employment while the effect on firms that were located in the treated areas before the program is not significant »Fuites: fuite constatée. « significant negative spillovers of the program on neighboring areas »
  • Anthony Briant et al. (2015)Can Tax Breaks Beat Geography? Lessons from the French Enterprise Zone ExperienceImpact: mitigé. « only accessible neighborhoods were able to draw benefits from tax breaks and social exemptions »
  • Laurent Gobillon and Thierry Magnac (2016)Regional Policy Evaluation: Interactive Fixed Effects and Synthetic Controls
  • Thierry Mayer et al. (2017)The impact of Urban Enterprise Zones on establishment location decisions and labor market outcomes: evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « the policy has a positive effect on employment, especially for low-wage workers »Fuites: fuite constatée. « this positive effect is entirely due to within-municipality diversion effects »
  • Pauline Givord et al. (2018)A long-term evaluation of the first generation of French urban enterprise zonesImpact: positif. « a strong positive impact of the Entreprise Zone policy on employment and business location during the first years of the policy »Permanence: s’estompe. « but gains faded as closures rose »
  • Pauline Charnoz (2018)Do Enterprise Zones Help Residents? Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « the unemployment rate of French EZ residents has decreased significantly as a result of the program »
  • Pascale Lofredi (2005)Stimulating rural development through tax incentives: an evaluation of France's Zones de revitalisation rurale (ZRR) programImpact: neutre. « no positive effects were found, apart from a mixed impact on certain particularly targeted sectors »
  • Luc Behaghel et al. (2015)Replacing churches and mason lodges? Tax exemptions and rural developmentImpact: neutre. « We find no impact of the program on total employment or the number of businesses »
  • Jérémy Hervelin and Pierre Villedieu (2022)The Benefits of Early Work Experience for School Dropouts: Evidence from a Field ExperimentImpact: positif. « the chances to be invited for a job interview are more than doubled »
  • Bruno Crépon et al. (2012)Training the Unemployed in France: How Does it Affect Unemployment Duration and Recurrence?Impact: mitigé. « training does not accelerate the exit from unemployment, but has a significant and positive effect on the duration of the subsequent employment spell »Permanence: durable. « a significant and positive effect on the duration of the subsequent employment spell »
  • Bruno Crépon et al. (2018)Information shocks and the empirical evaluation of training programs during unemployment spellsImpact: mitigé. « notification has a strong positive effect on the training probability but a negative one on the probability of leaving unemployment »
  • Héloïse Burlat (2024)Everybody's got to learn sometime? A causal machine learning evaluation of training programmes for jobseekers in FranceImpact: mitigé. « Only qualifying training shows a positive medium-term effect. »Permanence: mitigé. « a short-term negative lock-in effect for all programmes, persisting in the medium term for combined training »
  • Kevin Michael Frick et al. (2025)Skill Distance Between Occupations and Post-Training Professional Transitions of JobseekersImpact: positif. « the "return to employment" differential between jobseekers with and without training is driven by a reallocation of workers »
  • Mathilde Gaini et al. (2018)Résultats de l'évaluation quantitative de la Garantie jeunesImpact: positif. « a eu un effet sur le taux d'emploi des bénéficiaires »Permanence: durable. « effet qui perdure dans les mois qui suivent la sortie de l'accompagnement »
  • This site: Apprenticeship hiring aidApprenticeship hiring aidImpact: non renseigné. « Descriptive: higher-education contracts fell by 17% (early 2025) and 38% (early 2026) relative to secondary when they lost the aid, while large firms lost it at every level; with the same aid for both, the ratio still fell by 8% in March-December 2025. »
  • This site: France Relance industrial grantsFrance Relance industrial grantsImpact: neutre. « Among surviving firms, winners' turnover moved by +2.3% against matched firms by 2024 (95% confidence interval -4.7% to +9.4%), operating margin by +1.0 points (-0.3 to +2.4); winners published accounts 7.6 points less often. The CO2 declared by their facilities moved by +3.3% against matched facilities by 2024 (95% interval -7.1% to +13.8%). »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Produits, appareils et matériels médicaux

  • Riou França L et al. (2013)A cohort study of therapeutic prescriptions after the end of phytotherapy drug reimbursement by French Social SecurityImpact: négatif. « patients exposed to de-reimbursement were more likely to switch to psychotropic drugs (OR = 1.46) »Fuites: fuite constatée. « patients exposed to de-reimbursement were more likely to switch to psychotropic drugs (OR = 1.46) »
  • Laurie Rachet-Jacquet et al. (2021)Hospital payment schemes and high-priced drugs: Evidence from the French Add-on ListImpact: neutre. « Prescription volumes, generic shares and price levels are not systematically affected by delisting. »
  • Marion Tano et al. (2023)What About Offering a Financial Incentive Directly to Clinical Units to Encourage the Use of Biosimilars? Results of a Two-Year National Experiment in FranceImpact: positif. « The French experimental incentive appeared to be more effective at increasing biosimilar use. »
  • Marion Tano et al. (2024)Comparison of Two Financial Incentives to Encourage the Use of Adalimumab Biosimilars: Results of a French Experiment Close to CliniciansImpact: positif. « General case hospitals had a significantly lower mean biosimilar uptake (16.7% vs 23.2%, p = 0.029) »
  • Lecerf S et al. (2026)Long-term effect of discontinuing anticholinesterase treatment on cognitive decline and mortality in Alzheimer's disease in France: a quasi-experiment and target trial emulation studyImpact: mitigé. « had faster cognitive decline (per the same abstract) but no significant difference in five-year mortality »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Fonctionnement des organes exécutifs et législatifs, affaires financières et fiscales, affaires étrangères

  • Gabrielle Fack and Camille Landais (2016)The effect of tax enforcement on tax elasticities: Evidence from charitable contributions in FranceImpact: positif. « The reform led to a substantial drop in the amount of contributions reported to the administration »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Enseignement préélémentaire et primaire

  • Pierre Merle (2022)Le dédoublement des classes de CP et CE1 : quel bilan ?Impact: neutre. « a exercé des effets modérés, voire nuls, sur la progression scolaire des élèves »
  • Laurent Lima et al. (2020)Réduction de la taille des classes : évaluer les effets au-delà des modifications de performancesImpact: mitigé. « de faibles modifications à la fois de la qualité des interactions et du type d'interactions langagières mais pas de variation de l'implication des élèves »
  • Pascal Bressoux et al. (2009)Teachers' Training, Class Size and Students' Outcomes: Learning from Administrative Forecasting MistakesImpact: positif. « a small class is beneficial to students, especially to low-achieving ones »
  • Pascal Bressoux et al. (2019)Reducing the number of pupils in French first-grade classes: Is there evidence of contemporaneous and carryover effects?Impact: positif. « significant positive contemporaneous effect of the class size reduction in Grade 1 »Permanence: s’estompe. « At the end of Grade 2, the effects have faded. »
  • Adrien Bouguen et al. (2017)La taille des classes influence-t-elle la réussite scolaire ?Impact: positif. « ces effets sont élevés »
  • Céline Piquée and Bruno Suchaut (2004)Un maître supplémentaire dans la classe. Quels effets sur les progressions au cycle III ?Impact: neutre. « les élèves en difficulté pris en charge dans des petits groupes ne progressent pas plus que les élèves de caractéristiques comparables »
  • Christelle Dumas and Arnaud Lefranc (2012)Early schooling and later outcomes : Evidence from pre-school extension in FranceImpact: positif. « We find some sizeable and persistent effect of preschool »Permanence: durable. « sizeable and persistent effect of preschool »
  • Dominique Goux and Eric Maurin (2010)Public School Availability for Two-year Olds and Mothers' Labour SupplyImpact: mitigé. « early school availability has a significant employment effect on lone mothers, but no effect on two-parent families »Permanence: durable. « the effect grows larger as the child grows older »
  • Géraldine Farges et al. (2023)Scolarisation à 2 ans : effets sur le développement des enfants et la réduction des inégalitésImpact: mitigé. « En revanche, elle n'a aucun effet sur les capacités de raisonnement non verbal. »
  • Dominique Goux et al. (2017)Reading enjoyment and reading skills: Lessons from an experiment with first grade childrenImpact: mitigé. « taste for reading is significantly improved. However, there is no indication that this translates into higher reading skills »
  • Thomas Piketty and Mathieu Valdenaire (2006)L'impact de la taille des classes sur la réussite scolaire dans les écoles, collèges et lycées français - Estimations à partir du panel primaire 1997 et du panel secondaire 1995Impact: positif. « Une réduction d'un élève par classe de la taille de CE1 conduit à une augmentation de 0,7 point du score »
  • Maxime Fajeau et al. (2025)Efficacité économique de la réduction de la taille des classesImpact: positif. « une forte rentabilité de la politique dans l'enseignement primaire »
  • Julien Silhol and Lionel Wilner (2022 (WP); 2026 (journal))Teachers' Desired Mobility to Disadvantaged Schools: Do Financial Incentives Matter?Impact: positif. « most responsive teachers have less experience and work already in those areas »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Pensions de réversion (survie)

  • Léa Cimelli (2023)Are the widowed too much insured? Survivor's pensions and living standards upon widowhood in FranceImpact: positif. « Survivor's pensions largely ensure that women's living standards do not plummet upon widowhood »Fuites: fuite constatée. « those earning more tend to be overcompensated »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Exclusion sociale n.c.a.

  • Yves Goulard de Curraize and Helene Perivier (2009)L'allocation de parent isole a-t-elle favorise l'inactivite des femmes ?Impact: neutre. « la réaction de l'offre de travail des mères isolées a été faible au regard de la désincitation potentiellement introduite par l'API »
  • Mathilde Badufle et al. (2026)L'impact du Contrat d'engagement jeune sur les trajectoires professionnelles des bénéficiairesImpact: neutre. « L’effet mesuré reste toutefois modeste et statistiquement peu significatif en moyenne »
  • Mathilde Badufle et al. (2026)Le contrat d'engagement jeune - jeunes en rupture : une évaluation quantitativeImpact: positif. « les jeunes traités travaillent en emploi salarié, en moyenne, 7 points de pourcentage de plus que le groupe contrôle »
  • Arthur Félix W. Sawadogo and Océane Vilches (2024)Bénéficier de la Garantie jeunes : une plus-value pour l'insertion des jeunes en situation de vulnérabilité ?Impact: positif. « la Garantie jeunes exerce un effet positif mais modeste sur l'insertion »
  • Mathilde Gaini et al. (2018)Résultats de l'évaluation quantitative de la Garantie jeunesImpact: positif. « a eu un effet sur le taux d'emploi des bénéficiaires »Permanence: durable. « effet qui perdure dans les mois qui suivent la sortie de l'accompagnement »
  • Michaël Sicsic (2022)Does labour income react more to income tax or means-tested benefits reforms?Impact: mitigé. « around 0.1 in response to in-work benefit reforms, while I found no statistically significant response to family allowance reforms »
  • Arthur Heim (2024)Social investment and the changing face of poverty: essays on the design and evaluation of family and social policies in France (chapter 2)Impact: neutre. « the programme has no average effect on labour market participation and poverty after the end of the training »Permanence: s’estompe. « initially negative effects that diminish over time »
  • Guy Laroque and Bernard Salanié (2002)Labour market institutions and employment in FranceImpact: négatif. « the minimum wage explains close to 15% of non-employment for these women »
  • Laura Castell et al. (2025)Take-up of Social Benefits: Experimental Evidence from FranceImpact: mitigé. « a meeting with social services to assess eligibility and help with applications to social benefits increased new benefit take-up by 29 percent. By contrast, an online simulator that gave personalized information on benefit eligibility did not increase take-up »
  • Laurent Lequien (2011)Essais d'évaluation de politique publique dans les champs de l'éducation, de la santé et des politiques d'emploi (chapitre 1)
  • Arthur Heim and Alexandra Galitzine (2024)Social investment and the changing face of poverty: essays on the design and evaluation of family and social policies in France (chapter 3)Impact: négatif. « indicating significant disincentives to employment and increased in-work poverty »
  • Antoine Bozio et al. (2026)Impact de la revalorisation de la prime d'activité sur les comportements d'activitéImpact: mitigé. « elle ne génère aucun effet détectable sur l’emploi »
  • Marco Fugazza et al. (2003)L'influence de la PPE sur l'activité des femmes : une estimation à partir du modèle InesImpact: neutre. « l'impact de la PPE demeure limité »
  • Elena G.F. Stancanelli (2008)Evaluating the impact of the French tax credit on the employment rate of womenImpact: mitigé. « We find evidence of a negative employment effect for married women »
  • Hans Bloemen and Elena Stancanelli (2007)A Model with Endogenous Programme Participation: Evaluating the Tax Credit in FranceImpact: neutre. « We find no significant impact of the tax credit on either employment or hours of French women. »
  • Marion Cochard et al. (2008)Les effets incitatifs de la prime pour l'emploi : une évaluation difficileImpact: neutre. « Il n'apparaît pas d'effet significatif de la PPE sur l'emploi »
  • Olivier Bargain and Karina Doorley (2011)Caught in the trap? Welfare's disincentive and the labor supply of single menImpact: négatif. « the RMI reduces the participation of uneducated single men by 7–10% at age 25 »
  • Olivier Bargain and Augustin Vicard (2014)Le RMI et son successeur le RSA découragent-ils certains jeunes de travailler ? Une analyse sur les jeunes autour de 25 ansImpact: neutre. « le RMI et le RSA n'ont pas d'effet désincitatif marqué sur l'emploi des jeunes autour de cet âge »Permanence: s’estompe. « mais elle disparait par la suite »
  • Marc Gurgand and David N. Margolis (2008)Does work pay in France? Monetary incentives, hours constraints, and the guaranteed minimum incomeImpact: mitigé. « have little impact in this population due to their very limited scope. The negative income tax (Prime pour l'emploi), seems to be an exception. »
  • Matthieu Chemin and Etienne Wasmer (2021)Ex-ante and ex-post evaluation of the 1989 French welfare reform using a natural experiment: the 1908 social laws in Alsace-MoselleImpact: négatif. « a 3% fall in employment (among unskilled workers 25-55 years old) »
  • Antoine Terracol (2009)Guaranteed minimum income and unemployment duration in FranceImpact: négatif. « RMI receipt has a strong negative impact during the first months of program participation »Permanence: s’estompe. « this disincentive effect quickly falls to insignificant levels after six months »
  • Olivier Bargain and Karina Doorley (2017)The Effect of Social Benefits on Youth Employment: Combining Regression Discontinuity and a Behavioral Model
  • Thomas Breda et al. (2026)Évaluation quantitative de l'accompagnement rénové des bénéficiaires du RSAImpact: positif. « la probabilité d’être en emploi salarié à six mois augmente d’environ 0,9 point de pourcentage dans les zones traitées »Fuites: fuite constatée. « les effets négatifs observés sur les bénéficiaires non éligibles des zones d’emploi compensent en partie les effets positifs dans les zones d’expérimentation »
  • Guillaume Allègre (2011)Le RSA : redistribution vers les travailleurs pauvres et offre de travailImpact: négatif. « en net, 12 000 individus renonceraient à travailler »
  • Gedeão Locks and Josselin Thuilliez (2023)The impact of minimum income on homelessness: Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « the RSA benefit reduces the homelessness rate by 20% among young adults aged 22 to 27 »
  • Véronique Simonnet and Elisabeth Danzin (2014)L'effet du RSA sur le taux de retour à l'emploi des allocataires. Une analyse en double différence selon le nombre et l'âge des enfantsImpact: mitigé. « S'ils ne mettent pas en évidence de réel effet du RSA sur l'emploi des hommes »
  • Sylvain Chareyron et al. (2022)Droits et devoirs du RSA : l'impact des contrôles sur la participation des bénéficiairesImpact: positif. « l'avertissement augmente la participation aux démarches d'insertion et les sorties du RSA »
  • Sylvain Chareyron et al. (2018)Raising Take-Up of Social Assistance Benefits through a Simple Mailing: Evidence from a French Field ExperimentImpact: mitigé. « pourrait permettre d'accroître la participation de certains types de bénéficiaires »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Services de police

  • Laurent Carnis and Etienne Blais (2013)An assessment of the safety effects of the French speed camera programImpact: positif. « The fatality rate per 100,000 vehicles fell by 20% »Permanence: s’estompe. « a 26.2% reduction was recorded in the first month but dropped to 0.8 % for the last observation of the series »
  • Etienne Blais and Laurent Carnis (2015)Improving the safety effect of speed camera programs through innovations: Evidence from the French experienceImpact: positif. « the ASEP was associated with a decrease of 19.7% in traffic fatalities and crashes with injuries »
  • Guillaume Gormand (2017)L'évaluation des politiques publiques de sécurité : résultats et enseignements de l'étude d'un programme de vidéosurveillance de la Ville de MontpellierImpact: neutre. « a marginal contribution of CCTV cameras against crime in public areas »
  • Sebastian Roché et al. (2025)And the law relaxed the rules. A quasi-experimental study of fatal police shootings in EuropeImpact: négatif. « The monthly number of killings has significantly increased for the national police »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Développement collectif

  • Marie-Noëlle Lefebvre and Imen Daly (2026)Who Builds What When Subsidies Flow? Evidence from Place-Based Housing Policies in Small and Mid-Sized French CitiesImpact: positif. « Policy exposure increases authorized housing supply by about 45% »Fuites: aucune fuite constatée. « we find little evidence of average price capitalization »
  • Lucie Letrouit (2020)Three essays on the economics of social integration in an urban context (PhD thesis, essay 3)Impact: mitigé. « the program had non-significant and, in any case, very limited effects (i.e. smaller than 3.5%) on housing prices »
  • Sylvain Chareyron et al. (2022)Externalities from urban renewal: evidence from a French programImpact: neutre. « we find no significant aggregate impact of the program on housing prices »
  • Sylvain Chareyron et al. (2022)Can subsidies paid directly to employers reduce residential discrimination in employment? An assessment based on serial field experimentsImpact: positif. « the programme decreases residential discrimination after six months »Permanence: s’estompe. « we cannot conclude that the effect is still present 12 months later »
  • This site: Petites villes de demain and Territoires d'industriePetites villes de demain and Territoires d'industrieImpact: mitigé. « Private jobs moved by +0.0% (Petites villes de demain, 95% confidence interval -1.7% to +1.7%) and +0.4% (Territoires d'industrie, -2.1% to +2.9%) against matched communes by 2025; placebos pass. Industrial jobs in the communes of Territoires d'industrie moved by -6.0% between the 2015 and 2021 censuses (95% interval -11.0% to -1.0%). »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Logement

  • Anne Laferrère and David Le Blanc (2002)Comment les aides au logement affectent-elles les loyers ?Impact: positif. « Grâce à l'aide, les ménages ont pu se loger mieux »Fuites: fuite constatée. « Il y a donc eu aussi augmentation pure de loyer »
  • Gabrielle Fack (2005)Pourquoi les ménages pauvres paient-ils des loyers de plus en plus élevés ?Fuites: fuite constatée. « entre 50 % et 80 % des allocations logement perçues par ces ménages auraient été absorbées par les augmentations de leurs loyers »
  • Gabrielle Fack (2006)Are housing benefit an effective way to redistribute income? Evidence from a natural experiment in FranceImpact: positif. « The only possible effect of the reform is a small increase in housing quality. »Fuites: fuite constatée. « one additional euro of housing benefit leads to an increase of 78 cents in the rent paid by new benefit claimants »
  • Anne Laferrère and David Le Blanc (2004)Gone with the Windfall: How Do Housing Allowances Affect Student Co-residence?Impact: positif. « housing allowances provide an increased opportunity for students to move out of their parents' home »Fuites: fuite constatée. « as much as half of the allowance came as a windfall gai to students and their parents »
  • Céline Grislain-Letrémy and Corentin Trevien (2014)The Impact of Housing Subsidies on the Rental Sector: the French ExampleImpact: neutre. « higher subsidies seem to have almost no effect on housing quality and to have no impact on the number of offered rental dwellings »Fuites: fuite constatée. « housing subsidies had an inflationist impact »
  • Gabrielle Fack (2006)Are housing benefit an effective way to redistribute income? Evidence from a natural experiment in FranceFuites: fuite constatée. « one additional euro of housing benefit leads to an increase of 78 cents in the rent paid by new benefit claimants »
  • Céline Grislain-Letrémy and Corentin Trevien (2014)The Impact of Housing Subsidies on the Rental SectorImpact: neutre. « higher subsidies seem to have almost no effect on housing quality and to have no impact on the number of offered rental dwellings »Fuites: fuite constatée. « housing subsidies had an inflationist impact »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Services annexes à l’enseignement

  • Luc Behaghel et al. (2017)Ready for Boarding? The Effects of a Boarding School for Disadvantaged StudentsImpact: mitigé. « this effect mostly comes from strong students »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Services culturels

  • Abel Aussant (2025)What Do Culture Vouchers Really Buy? Evidence from France's 'pass Culture' Policy EffectsImpact: mitigé. « while the voucher does not affect participation in institutional highbrow cultural activities like museum visits, theater, or opera attendance, it significantly increases engagement with commercial popular culture »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Services récréatifs et sportifs

  • Swantje Allmers and Wolfgang Maennig (2009)Economic impacts of the FIFA Soccer World Cups in France 1998, Germany 2006, and outlook for South Africa 2010Impact: neutre. « For France, no effects could be isolated. »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Combustibles et énergie

  • Odran Bonnet et al. (2024)Compensating against fuel price inflation: Price subsidies or transfers?Impact: positif. « we estimate a price elasticity of fuel demand of -0.31 »
  • Marine Adam et al. (2024)Cross-border shopping for fuel at the France-Germany borderFuites: fuite constatée. « When relative prices increase by 1%, the relative cross-border demand decreases by 7.8%. »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Enseignement supérieur

  • Gabrielle Fack and Julien Grenet (2015)Improving College Access and Success for Low-Income Students: Evidence from a Large Need-Based Grant ProgramImpact: positif. « increases their college enrollment rates by 5 to 7 percent »
  • Sébastien Grobon and François-Charles Wolff (2022)Do public scholarships crowd out parental transfers? Evidence at the intensive margin from FranceFuites: fuite constatée. « a substantial part of student scholarship benefits low-income parents through a reduction in the money they give to their student children »
  • Camille Remigereau and Clara Schäper (2024)The Impact of Student Aid Eligibility on Higher Education ApplicationsImpact: mitigé. « the financial aid reform did not affect application decisions for all students, but it impacted students differently based on gender and academic performance »
  • Sophie Morlaix and Cathy Perret (2013)L'évaluation du Plan Réussite en Licence : quelles actions pour quels effets ? Analyse sur les résultats des étudiants en première année universitaireImpact: neutre. « Ces derniers soulignent les difficultés à appréhender un effet positif des actions du PRL. »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Logement (aménagement)

  • Laurent Gobillon and David le Blanc (2008)Economic effects of upfront subsidies to ownership: The case of the Prêt à Taux Zéro in FranceImpact: positif. « the PTZ significantly increases access to ownership by allowing some households to leave the rental sector sooner »Fuites: fuite constatée. « We estimate that 85% of the beneficiaries in a 4-year period would still have moved to own in the absence of the subsidy. »
  • Ilya Eryzhenskiy et al. (2025)Zero-Interest Green Loans and Home Energy Retrofits: Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « eligibility to the program had a 20-22% impact on the extensive margin of investment »Permanence: s’estompe. « but only in the first two years »
  • Guillaume Chapelle et al. (2018)Impact of a Housing Tax Credit on Local Housing Markets: Evidence from FranceImpact: neutre. « without reducing the production of new housing units »Fuites: fuite constatée. « the removal of these tax credits decelerated house prices »
  • Pierre-Henri Bono and Alain Trannoy (2019)The Impact of the 'Scellier' Income Tax Relief on Building Land Prices in FranceFuites: fuite constatée. « point to land price capitalisation »
  • Sylvain Chareyron et al. (2021)Ownership incentives and housing affordability: Evidence from FranceImpact: mitigé. « Taking both markets together, the overall effect is non-significant. »Fuites: fuite constatée. « the price of new housing increased by 30% »
  • Imen Daly (2024)Housing Policy and Urban Development in France (PhD thesis, chapter 1)Impact: positif. « the scheme significantly increased renovation activities »
  • Claire Dujardin and Florence Goffette-Nagot (2009)Does public housing occupancy increase unemployment?Impact: neutre. « living in public housing has no effect on the probability of being unemployed in France »
  • Pierre-Henri Bono et al. (2012)Analyse Contrefactuelle de l'Article 55 de la Loi SRU sur la Production de Logements SociauxImpact: positif. « For a quadrennial production gain is estimated at 0.35 additional percentage point »
  • Laurent Gobillon and Benjamin Vignolles (2016)Évaluation de l'effet d'une politique spatialisée d'accès au logement. La loi SRUImpact: positif. « La loi sru aurait eu un effet positif significatif sur la construction de logements sociaux »Permanence: durable. « croissant au cours du temps »
  • Guillaume Chapelle et al. (2025)Building without income mixing: Public housing quotas in FranceImpact: mitigé. « the law stimulated public housing construction in treated municipalities, but only slightly increased the presence of low-income households »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Tribunaux

  • Arnaud Philippe (2015)How far do criminal understand the criminal law? Evidence from French mandatory sentencingImpact: positif. « the law equally deterred targeted and untargeted crimes in the short term »Permanence: mitigé. « while only targeted behaviors remain affected in the medium term »
  • Benjamin Monnery (2017)The Cost of Slow Justice: How Delayed Incarceration Fuels RecidivismImpact: positif. « fast-track incarceration has large significant deterrent effects on recidivism »
  • Arnaud Philippe (2017)Do jurors and professional judges differ in their treatment of crime?: Evidence from French reformImpact: neutre. « do not permit me to identify any change in the probability of being convicted or in sentences »
  • Romain Espinosa et al. (2017)Fewer courts, less justice? Evidence from the 2008 French reform of labor courtsImpact: mitigé. « duration did not increase, but the demand for litigation decreased »
  • Anne Épaulard and Chloé Zapha (2023)Corporate Bankruptcy and the (In-)Efficiency of Small Commercial CourtsImpact: positif. « the reform unambiguously reduced Type 1 errors for small firms in absorbed court and left unchanged Type 2 errors »
  • Matthieu Belarouci et al. (2024)Did the French reform of the judicial map affect conciliation activities?Impact: mitigé. « the number of conciliators decreased more significantly in treated courts than in control courts »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Services de santé publique

  • Guillaume E et al. (2017)Patient navigation to reduce social inequalities in colorectal cancer screening participation: A cluster randomized controlled trialImpact: positif. « The intervention mainly with phone navigation increased individual participation (OR=1.19 [1.10, 1.29]) »
  • Denis B et al. (2017)Tailored telephone counselling to increase participation of underusers in a population-based colorectal cancer-screening programme with faecal occult blood test: A randomized controlled trialImpact: positif. « participation was significantly higher in the two intervention groups than in the control group »
  • Thomas C. Buchmueller and Léontine Goldzahl (2018)The effect of organized breast cancer screening on mammography use: Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « France's organized screening program has reduced socioeconomic disparities in access to mammography »
  • Affret A et al. (2020)Effectiveness of the e-Tabac Info Service application for smoking cessation: a pragmatic randomised controlled trialImpact: neutre. « Use of the e-TIS app was not associated with a higher rate of smoking cessation. »
  • Guignard R et al. (2021)Effectiveness of 'Mois sans tabac 2016': A French social marketing campaign against smokingImpact: positif. « These analyses suggest the effectiveness of the 2016 Mois sans tabac intervention »
  • Berlin I et al. (2021)Financial incentives for smoking cessation in pregnancy: multicentre randomised controlled trialImpact: positif. « Financial incentives to reward smoking abstinence compared with no financial incentives were associated with an increased abstinence rate in pregnant smokers. »
  • Delphine Teigné et al. (2024)Organized cervical cancer screening: A randomized controlled trial assessing the effect of sending invitation lettersImpact: positif. « resulted in a modest increase in participation among non-adherent women six months later »
  • Thilly N et al. (2024)Effectiveness of a School- and Primary Care-Based HPV Vaccination Intervention: The PrevHPV Cluster Randomized TrialImpact: mitigé. « At-school HPV vaccination significantly increased vaccination coverage. The trial did not show a significant effect for training GPs and education and motivation. »
  • Guignard R et al. (2026)Effectiveness of an in-office intervention to improve general practitioners' support for tobacco smoking cessation: results from a randomised controlled trial (TABAC-PRO)Impact: positif. « Providing simple paper-based tools was associated with a greater likelihood of GPs discussing smoking cessation with their patients. »
  • Bocquier A et al. (2026)One-year impact on HPV vaccination coverage of a school- and primary care-based intervention: the PrevHPV cluster randomised trialImpact: positif. « School-based vaccination was effective in increasing HPV VC in the medium term »Permanence: durable. « effective in increasing HPV VC in the medium term »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Agriculture, sylviculture, pêche et chasse

  • Andrea Pufahl and Christoph R. Weiss (2009)Farm Structure and the Effects of Agri-Environmental Programs: Results from a Matching Analysis for European CountriesImpact: positif. « significant effects of AE participation on production (Germany, France) and farm profits (France, Ireland, United Kingdom) »
  • Sylvain Chabé-Ferret and Julie Subervie (2013)How much green for the buck? Estimating additional and windfall effects of French agro-environmental schemes by DID-matchingImpact: mitigé. « the AES subsidizing conversion to organic farming has low windfall effects and high additionality »Fuites: fuite constatée. « at the expense of almost 7 ha of windfall effect »
  • Linda Arata and Paolo Sckokai (2016)The Impact of Agri-environmental Schemes on Farm Performance in Five E.U. Member States: A DID-Matching ApproachImpact: mitigé. « The effects of the AESs adoption largely depend on the share of the agri-environmental payment on farm revenue. »
  • Laure Kuhfuss and Julie Subervie (2018)Do European agri-environment measures help reduce herbicide use? Evidence from viticulture in FranceImpact: positif. « the quantity of herbicides used by participants in the scheme in 2011 ranges from 38 to 53 percent below what they would have used without the scheme »
  • Margaux Lapierre et al. (2019)Providing technical assistance to peer networks to reduce pesticide use in Europe: Evidence from the French Ecophyto planImpact: positif. « participants have used 8 to 22 percent lesser pesticides than they would have used in the absence of the program »
  • Sylvain Chabé-Ferret et al. (2019)Can we nudge farmers into saving water? Evidence from a randomised experimentImpact: mitigé. « though it reduced consumption among the heaviest irrigators »
  • Marine Coinon (chapter 2 co-authored with Sylvain Chabé-Ferret, Arnaud Reynaud, Eva Tène) (2022)Essais sur les externalités spatiales associées à l'agriculture biologique (Essays on Spatial Externalities and Organic Farming), chapter 2Impact: positif. « organic farming decreases nitrate concentrations in water by up to 1.3mg/l »
  • Rose Deperrois et al. (2023)Social Learning for the Green Transition: Evidence from a Pesticide Reduction PolicyImpact: positif. « doubling the proportion of participants would reduce pesticide use by about 10% within representative cohorts »
  • Alexandre Sauquet (2023)Ex post analysis of the crop diversification measure of CAP greening in FranceImpact: positif. « farms greater than 30 ha increased compliance with the measure and the number of crops grown on their lands »
  • Thierno Bocar Diop and Lionel Védrine (2024)Did crop diversity criterion from CAP green payments affect both economic and environmental farm performances? Quasi-experimental evidence from FranceImpact: mitigé. « This suggests that the crop diversity criterion did not result in much additional change. »
  • Isabelle Chort et al. (2024)Agricultural policies and biodiversity: impact of the CAP greening on bird abundance and diversity in FranceImpact: mitigé. « an increase in overall bird abundance after 2015 in sites with a higher ex-ante proportion of arable land, driven by a small number of generalist species, and no impact on species richness »Permanence: s’estompe. « the positive effects were limited to the first two years »
  • Valentin Cocco et al. (2025)Guilty or scapegoat? Land consolidation and the hedgerow declineImpact: négatif. « consolidation led to a significant reduction in hedgerow density of -14.3m/ha »
  • Valentin Cocco (2025)Haie-conomie — Analyses économiques de l'évolution des paysages agricoles (Hedgerow-nomics — Economic analyses of agricultural landscape changes), chapter 2

Impact, fuites, permanence

Administration pénitentiaire

  • Eric Maurin and Aurélie Ouss (2009)Sentence Reductions and Recidivism: Lessons from the Bastille Day Quasi ExperimentImpact: négatif. « collective sentence reductions increase recidivism »
  • Anaïs Henneguelle et al. (2016)Better at Home than in Prison? The Effects of Electronic Monitoring on Recidivism in FranceImpact: positif. « estimated reductions in probability of reconviction of 6-7 percentage points (9-11%) after five years »Permanence: durable. « has long-lasting beneficial effects on recidivism »
  • Benjamin Monnery et al. (2020)Prison, Semi-Liberty and Recidivism: Bounding Causal Effects in a Survival ModelImpact: positif. « semi-liberty is associated with a reduction of 22% to 31% in offenders' hazard of recidivism »

Impact, fuites, permanence

Transferts de caractère général entre administrations publiques

  • Benoit de Lapasse and Julien Desclodur (2025)Les trajectoires budgétaires des communes nouvelles : comparaison avec leurs "proches voisines"Impact: positif. « les recettes et dépenses de fonctionnement progressent nettement dans les deux années suivant la fusion »
  • Roberto Brunetti (2026)Municipalities' Voting Power and Housing Supply: Evidence from French Intermunicipal CooperationImpact: mitigé. « with no statistically significant change in the total number of permits it issues »
  • Andrew C. Eggers et al. (2018)Regression Discontinuity Designs Based on Population Thresholds: Pitfalls and Solutions
  • Abel François et al. (2025)Legislature Size does Matter for Public Spending: Causal Evidence and Mechanisms at WorkImpact: positif. « the council size is clearly a positive causal factor of municipal public spending »
  • Marie-Laure Breuillé et al. (2018)Inter-municipal cooperation and local taxationImpact: positif. « inter-municipal cooperation led to an increase in the four (municipal plus inter-municipal) tax rates »
  • Touria Jaaidane et al. (2023)Inter-municipal cooperation and public employment: evidence from French municipalitiesImpact: positif. « cooperation triggers personnel downsizing at the municipal level »
  • Clémence Tricaud (2025)Better Alone? Evidence on the Costs of Intermunicipal CooperationImpact: mitigé. « rural municipalities ended up with fewer local public services »
  • Federica Galli et al. (2026)Is compulsory inter-municipal cooperation an efficiency booster?Impact: positif. « the RCT law increased municipal efficiency by 1.1% to 1.9% »
  • Tidiane Ly and Sonia Paty (2020)Local taxation and tax base mobility: Evidence from FranceImpact: positif. « the reduction in the mobility of the tax base indeed results in higher business property tax rates »
  • Touria Jaaidane and Sophie Larribeau (2023)The effects of inter-municipal cooperation and central grant allocation on the size of the French local public sectorImpact: positif. « cuts in grants lead to cuts in municipalities' public wage bills »
  • Touria Jaaidane and Sophie Larribeau (2026)When the money stops: fiscal and political reactions to changing grant eligibilityFuites: fuite constatée. « municipalities substitute grants with local tax revenues »